325 years ago, in the summer of 1687, the fundamental work of Isaac Newton "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" saw the light. During the author's life the work was published twice - in 1713 and 1725.
"Newton's "Principles of Natural Philosophy" constitute the firm foundation of theoretical mechanics, astronomy and physics. Lagrange called this work "the greatest works of the human mind", so the benefits that one can get from this book are clear "- by these words begins a" translator's introduction " to the publication of Newton's writings in Russian academician O.M.Krilov - the famous engineer, mathematician, theorist shipbuilding.
In the history of science Newton's "Principles" played a crucial role. Not only the story of physics as a science begins from this book. This book has had a huge impact on the founder of classical economics Adam Smith, and on young Immanuel Kant, and on the French
philosophers-enlighteners ...
Unfortunately, in our time, few people open the Newton's "Principles" and familiar, though, with a preface to the book. Moreover, in recent decades, there were a lot of work, where the principles of Newtonian mechanics are declared obsolete, and he was attributed the views, which he not only did not, but strongly opposed, in particular the introduction to the physics of action at a distance.
It should be noted that the falsification of Newton's views began during his lifetime - during the preparation of the second edition of the "Principles", which was done by Cambridge Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Physics Roger Kots under leadership of Publishing Director of Trinity College Cambridge Bishop Richard Bentley. Therefore, on the occasion of the anniversary of the great Newton's book, I think it would be better not to repeat once again the famous words of its historical role, which can be found in encyclopedias, but briefly describe some of the ideas contained in it - the ones that make this book the beginning of a new era in science. But first, a few words about the circumstances under which this book was appeared.
Newton began work on his book in the summer of 1684. By the time he was 15 years professor of mathematics at Trinity College, and 12 - a member of the Royal Society of London, where he was elected for the invention of the telescope mirror. Newton also invented a method of infinitesimal and performed well-known studies on optics. It should be noted that the debate on these studies a long time repulsed his desire to publish new results and get involved in discussions. It is not known when and in what form the world saw the results of research on the mechanics of Newton, if not for his friend the astronomer Edmond Halley.
In the summer of 1684 E.Galley, Robert Hooke - Secretary of the Royal Society, Christopher Wren - a member of the Company and the famous architect during a meeting in a London cafe discussed the trajectory of motion of celestial bodies that are attracted with a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. R.Guk claimed to know the solution to this problem and promised to present it, but the promise is not fulfilled. Then Halley, while in August 1684 in Cambridge, took the issue to Newton, who, without hesitation, replied: "Ellipse" and added that he knew it to 1679. In November 1684, he sent the manuscript to Halley, as he reported to the Royal Society on 10 December. Manuscript with the solution the Company has received in February 1685, but, at the request of Newton, he was not printed, but only registered the case of priority protection.
A year later, in the minutes of the meetings of the Company there was a historic record: "April 28, 1686, Dr. Vincent Newton handed the manuscript under the title" Principia mathematica philosophiae naturalis ", which provides a mathematical proof of the Copernican hypothesis in the form in which it was proposed by Kepler, and all the celestial motions explained on the basis of common assumptions about the center of gravity of the Sun, which is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. "
May 19, 1686 it was decided to publish the work of Newton at the expenses of the Company, but there was not enough money, as before the Society published the book "History of Fishes" (authors Willughly and Ray), which had no demand, and has exhausted its budget. Halley then decided to print the "Principles" at his own expense. Printing of the work (in three books) 300 copies was completed in July 1687
Newton's "Principles" made a huge impression on the scientific world. It was the first work, in which not certain problems in mechanics were considered but mechanics in general. In the first book, Newton gave a definition of the basic concepts of mechanics and formulated the basic laws. In the second book, he considered the motion of objects in the environment. The third book contains the theory of motion of celestial bodies. The book provoked a hot debate, in part because his ideas contradicted the views of the then main schools of philosophy.
In the preface to the first edition Newton clearly stated intention of his work and made a grand program of nature research, which is then to implement more than one generation of scientists. He wrote:
"As the ancient scholars, according Pappus (Pappus, Papp - Greek mathematician, III Cnt. - V.I.) attached great importance to the study of the mechanics of nature, the newer authors, rejecting substance and hidden properties, trying to subdue the phenomena of nature to the laws of mathematics. ..
Ancient authors considered the mechanics of two ways: as a rational (speculative), developing accurate evidence, and as practical. The practical mechanics are all crafts and production, referred to as mechanical, from which it takes the name itself mechanics.
As in the work of artisans met only a small degree of accuracy, it was felt that the mechanics so different from the geometry that are all quite accurate refer to geometry, the less accurate refers to the mechanics ...
However, the mere drawing of straight lines and circles, is the basis of geometry, in fact refers to the mechanics. Geometry does not teach how to carry out these lines, but suggests (postulates) the implementation of these constructions ...
Thus, the geometry is based on the mechanical practice and is nothing more than a part of the general mechanics, which sets out the art of accurate measurement. But as in the arts and industries it has to deal mainly with the motion of bodies, it is usually all that concerns only the value attributed to the geometry, and everything to do with the movement, to the mechanics.
In this sense rational mechanics is the study of the movements caused by any forces, and the forces that are necessary for causing any movements. This study is accurately stated and proven.
In ancient times, this part of the mechanics was developed only in the form of the doctrine of the five machines (lever, brace, block, screw, wedge - V.I.); while even the weight (as it is not the force exerted by the hands) is not viewed as a force, but only as the load which moves by the specified machines. We reasoned not about craft, but about the doctrine of nature, and therefore ... the forces of nature, we are mainly engaged in what relates to gravity, lightness, strength, elasticity, resistance to liquids and similar forces - attractive or repulsive. Therefore, we propose this work as a mathematical principles of natural philosophy (physics).
All the complexity of physics, as we shall see, is that in the phenomena of motion to recognize the forces of nature, and then using these forces to explain other phenomena. For this purpose, the general assumptions are set out in the first and second books. In the third book we give an example of the above-mentioned program, explaining the system of the world, because there is of celestial phenomena, by guessing, proved in the previous books, mathematically derived gravity bodies to the sun and the individual planets. Then from these forces, as well as with the help of mathematical assumptions the motion of the planets, comets, the moon and the sea is derived.
It would be desirable to withdraw from the principles of mechanics other phenomena of nature, arguing in a similar way, for much makes me think that all these phenomena are caused by some of the forces with which the particles of bodies, due to reasons yet unknown, or aspire to each other and are combined in the correct figures or repel each other and away from each other. Since these forces are unknown, then philosophers' attempts to explain the phenomena of nature remained fruitless ...
The publication of this work was contributed to a sharp mind and in all fields of science pundit Edmund Halley, who not only corrected the printed proof and cared about making pictures, but even if only at his insistence, I started the publication ... ".
I repeat the words of this preface, which briefly expressed Newton method for studying " by the phenomena of motion to recognize the forces of nature, and then using these forces to explain other phenomena."
In more detail the Newton method was described by Roger Cotes, in the preface to the second edition of the "Principles."
"Those who are trying to teach physics in general can be classified into three categories. First identifies those who ascribe different kind of subjects some special hidden qualities, from which it is not known how it should be, in their opinion, the interaction of the individual bodies. This is the essence of scholastic exercises originating from Aristotle and the Peripatetics. They claimed that certain actions of bodies are due to peculiarities of their very nature, in what these features are, they are not taught, then, in fact, they have not been taught at all. So it all comes down to the names of individual objects, and not to the nature of things, and we can say that they have created a philosophical language, and not the very philosophy.
Others ... claimed that all matter in the universe is homogeneous and all kinds of differences, which are visible in the bodies due to some simple and accessible understanding of the properties of the particles that make up the body ... But they give themselves the right to assume according to their own unknown species and particle size , uncertain of their location and movements, as well as coming up with a variety of intangible fluid freely penetrate through the pores of the body and have the almighty subtlety and hidden movement.
They ..., borrowing base for their reasoning hypothesis, even if all further developed very precisely on the basis of the laws of mechanics, would create a very elegant and beautiful fairy tale, but only a fairy tale.
There remains a third category - the followers of experimental philosophy (ie, the experimental method in the study of natural phenomena). They also tend to bring the causes of all things possible with simple beginnings, but they did not take over the beginning, only those which are confirmed by the phenomena that occur. They do not come up with hypotheses and do not introduce them to the physics of it except in the form of assumptions, the validity of which should be investigated. Thus, they use two methods - analytical and synthetic. Forces of nature and the simple laws of their action they take analytically from certain phenomena, and then synthetically produced the laws of other phenomena. That's the best way to study nature and it was adopted by our famous author ... ".
It should be noted that the method of Newton's studies - is not induction, as referred to by many philosophers, but the combination of analysis and synthesis, as based on the study of phenomena has been suggested the reasons for them (the beginning), which are used to explain other phenomena, and only the success of these explanations gives basis for the conclusion of the truth of assumptions.
Philosopher who wrote that "Spinoza proceeds from clear minded prerequisites and Newton, pretending he had no prerequisites generally proceeds from incomprehensible for himself prerequisites, axioms, and postulates" seems to have never read the works of Newton. By the way, Newton not only conducted research really scientific method (a combination of analysis and synthesis, using observation, experiment and theoretical research), but also at the beginning of the first book "Principles" to articulate the basic definitions and principles, and early in the third gave the "Rules of philosophizing" , the first of which states: "Do not take causes of natural things other than both are true and sufficient to explain the phenomena ...".
Misunderstanding of Newton's method led to some philosophers, beginning with Hegel, to declare that the law of gravity, in fact, was discovered by Kepler, as it can be mathematically deduced from Kepler's third law.
Newton denied the accusation at a time when Hegel was not in the world (in response to a claim by Hooke's discovery of the law of universal gravitation). Since there are measurement errors, no one will ever prove on the basis of observations in the law of gravity distance between celestial bodies standing in a power of 2, and not, for example, the degree of 2.0000006. Moreover, since the planet are attracted not only to the sun, but also to each other, precise observations show that the motion of the planets is against the laws of Kepler.
Newton also analyzed the motion of the Moon, planets, bodies on the surface of the Earth, and got by induction assumption that all bodies attract with a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Putting this assumption in the basis for the theory of motion of various celestial bodies and get the agreement of calculations with observations, Newton concluded that the this assumption is true.
In the preface to the second edition of the "Principles" R.Kots remembers "the godless scum of the herd, who think that the world is governed by fate, not by providence, and matter, by virtue of its own need, whenever and wherever existed and it is infinite and eternal" , and then concludes: "We have to be blind do not see in the most beautiful and wise structure of the world the great kindness of the Almighty Creator, you have to be crazy to not recognize it. Therefore remarkable work of Newton is the best protection against the attacks of the ungodly, and nowhere to be found best weapon against the wicked gang as those in this quiver. "
To achieve such aim, i.e. the Newton's book will be able to become such a weapon, R.Kots introduced in the text a number of changes, not always agreed with the author (see.: Zeitlin ZA "Science and Hypothesis." Moscow-Leningrad, State Publishing House. 1926).
Since that time Newton is credited with the idea that gravity is such an essential property of bodies which do not have to explain that the body can operate at a distance through the absolute void (long-range), and the science should be limited by describing the phenomena. Newton's actual views can be seen from the following statements.
Newton, in particular, wrote: "The name of gravity (center), pressure or" aspiration "(to the center), I use the same one over the other, considering these forces not physically, but mathematically"; "Considering the centripetal force as the attraction may be better to put it physically more correct and call it pressure."
In a letter to Bentley dated February 25, 1693, Newton wrote: "To assume that gravity is essential, inseparable and inherent property of matter, so that the body may act upon another at any distance in the empty space, without thereby transmitting the force, is, in my opinion, such an absurdity, which is unthinkable for anyone who is able to sufficiently understand the philosophical subjects. Gravitation must be caused by an agent acting constantly according to certain laws. "
About action at a distance: "Now should add some of the very thin ether (spiritus), the power and influence of which the particles of bodies at very small distances are mutually attracted, and when touching are interlocked; electrified bodies operate over long distances, like pushing and attracting close small body, light is emitted, reflected, refracted ... But it is impossible to describe briefly, besides there is no sufficient supply of experience that the laws of action of this ether would be precisely defined and shown. "
"I did not come up with hypotheses (hypotheses non fingo). Whatever is not deduced from the phenomena must be called a hypothesis; hypotheses as metaphysical, physical, mechanical, hidden properties have no place in experimental philosophy."
The statement that Newton introduced the methodology of "pure description" of nature, introducing the concept of force, is false. In fact, he stressed that the force - this is a temporary step, a mathematical fiction that makes it easier to move forward in the knowledge of nature.
I should note that many uncritically repeat the words of Ernst Mach about Newton's absolute space and time: they must be discarded as a purely abstract things that can not be detected by experiments. By this logic it should abandon all abstractions - numbers, geometric shapes, general concepts, which are also not subject to experimental investigation. And Max called wrong Newtonian determination of the mass as a product of the density on the volume, not understanding that, under density Newton understood the number of atoms per unit volume. ...
Today more and more authors writing about the crisis of physics in the twentieth century - the beginning of the twenty-first century. The books by John Horgan, "The End of Science" (1996) and Lee Smolin's "The Trouble with Physics" (2006) were printed on several languages. But in these books there is a statement of the crisis, but there is not even a hint of a way out of it. And I think I know why. That the authors of these books do not have any idea about the research methods of the founder of physics. So, read the work of Isaac Newton, and above all - "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"!